The International Journal of Equine Science (IJES) is a gold open-access, peer-reviewed journal that aims to publish research papers, review articles, clinical studies, case reports, case studies, and short communications that advance knowledge and practice in equine health, performance, and welfare. IJES publishes studies directly involving equines as well as research on humans whose activities are closely related to equine science and practice, including equestrian athletes, riders, trainers, handlers, veterinarians, and other professionals.
Authors retain the copyright of their manuscripts, and all Open Access articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that the original work is properly cited.
The Immediate Effect of Pole Work and Kinesiotape on Engagement of Rectus Abdominis and Longissimus Dorsi Activity, Pelvic Symmetry, and Kinematics in Horses
This study investigated the acute effects of ground poles and abdominal kinesiotaping (KT) on rectus abdominis (RA) and longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle activity, pelvic symmetry, and selected kinematic variables in eleven horses trotting in hand. Four conditions were evaluated: control, poles, KT, and combined KT with poles. Surface electromyography quantified muscle activity, inertial sensors assessed pelvic symmetry, and two-dimensional video analysis measured limb protraction and lumbosacral (LS) angle. Peak RA activity was significantly greater during poles and poles with KT compared with KT alone (P ≤ 0.003), although average RA activity did not differ between conditions. LS angle was reduced during poles at forelimb midstance (P = 0.035) and at maximal hindlimb protraction (P ≤ 0.023). Hindlimb protraction decreased in pole conditions (P < 0.001). No significant effects were observed for LD activity or pelvic symmetry. These findings indicate that pole exercise influences abdominal muscle activation and lumbosacral kinematics during trot. Kinesiotaping alone did not significantly alter muscle activity or kinematics. The magnitude and clinical relevance of observed changes were modest, and the potential influence of speed cannot be excluded. Further controlled studies incorporating three-dimensional kinematics and velocity measurement are warranted
Copyright (c) 2026 Anna Srutova, Hope Jameson, Roberta Blake https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Preliminary Investigation into Forage Dunking Behavior in Horses in the UK
Forage dunking refers to a horse collecting forage with its mouth, dunking it in a nearby water source, and eating the dampened forage as it normally would. It is primarily thought to function as a method to rehydrate the forage or is observed when dental pathology is present, though limited research has been undertaken into this specific behavior. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of forage dunking behavior in horses in the UK and potential relationships between the behavior, horse activity, or management practices. An online survey consisting of 20 closed-answer questions was distributed via social media for 3 weeks. Questions focused on horse demographics and their daily management practices, and the presence of forage dunking behavior. Likert scale statements were aimed at gaining further insight into potential influencing factors. A chi-square test of association was used to analyze the collected data. Based on 414 valid responses, a prevalence of 42.7% (n = 161) was reported for forage dunking. This was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in dressage horses (54.8%) compared to other disciplines (36.4–51.0%). Horses housed in American barns were also more likely (P ≤ 0.001) to dunk their forage compared to horses housed in other stable designs. While 50.3% of owners reported that feeding dry forage increased forage dunking behavior compared with feeding soaked or steamed forage, soaking or steaming did not eliminate the behavior (P > 0.05). Of the 71 horses with reported health conditions, 46.5% (n = 33) were reported to dunk their forage, especially those with laryngeal hemiplegia (83.3%). Results from this study suggest that forage dunking may not only be used to rehydrate forage but may, in some way, be used to make the forage more acceptable or palatable to horses with respiratory disorders, particularly those with laryngeal hemiplegia. Forage dunking behavior was not eliminated by feeding soaked or steamed forage; thus, the reasons behind this activity need further investigation to determine if this behavior is beneficial or detrimental to equine health.
Copyright (c) 2026 Hieke Brown, Kira Lee https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Horses for Courses: Identifying Coaching Capabilities and Contexts in Equestrian Coach Development Pathways
The British Equestrian Federation (BEF) aims to improve coaching quality by identifying essential capabilities within different participant contexts. This study focused on the performance development context, examining the specific coaching skills required to tailor coach education effectively. Seven expert performance development coaches (n = 5 females; n = 2 males), identified by the BEF, participated in semi-structured interviews. Data were analyzed using a grounded theory approach to identify key coaching capabilities. Findings highlighted two major themes. First, expert coaches are coaches with expertise and experience, and effective coaches are empowering, as coaching extends beyond technical and tactical instruction, enabling athletes to become autonomous. Coaches recognized the importance of influencing riders psychologically and emotionally, not just through skill instruction. Coaches are open-minded, as they actively seek transferable skills and value knowledge from expert coaching in other sports, viewing cross-disciplinary learning as beneficial to their development. Secondly, expert coaches are adaptable, working comfortably across multiple contexts rather than exclusively within performance development. They emphasized that most coaching capabilities are required in all contexts, albeit to varying degrees. The pathway to expertise requires a substantial base of declarative and procedural knowledge, alongside extensive coaching, training, and competitive experience. While findings align with broader coaching literature, differences emerged due to the unique nature of equestrian sport, particularly the rider–horse dynamic. Further research into other coaching contexts is needed to develop a holistic understanding, ensuring these findings inform coach education across the equestrian sector.
Copyright (c) 2026 Amelia Campbell-Horne, Lorna Cameron, Lucy Dumbell, Victoria Lewis https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Preliminary Insights into Resting Patterns of Young Thoroughbred Racehorses During Initial Training
Rest and sleep are key components of equine welfare and athletic performance, particularly in young racehorses adapting to the demands of early training. This preliminary study evaluated resting behavior in five two-year-old Thoroughbreds during their initial adaptation to stabling and after their first high-intensity gallop. Horses were monitored using continuous 24-hour infrared video recordings at two time points: immediately following arrival at the racetrack (M0) and approximately 3–4 months later, during advanced training (M1). The total time spent standing, in sternal recumbency, and in lateral recumbency, as well as the frequency of recumbent events, were quantified. No day-to-day differences were detected within either moment. When comparing moments, horses spent significantly more time standing (P = 0.003) and less time in both sternal (P = 0.017) and lateral (P = 0.049) recumbency at M1. Lateral recumbency frequency was reduced following intense exercise (P = 0.003) when compared to M0, whereas no other exercise-related effects were identified. In conclusion, despite the progressive increase in workload, the horses did not exhibit major disturbances; however, further research is needed to clarify whether these behavioral changes represent adaptation, vigilance, or early indicators of sleep restriction.
Copyright (c) 2026 Eric D. P. Sotelo, Meire S. Paulista, Tiago M. Oliveira, Raquel Y. A. Baccarin, Ruan R. Daros, Pedro V. Michelotto https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Preliminary Study Exploring the Relationship Between Exercise Regimes and Sleep-Related Behavior in Stabled Horses
Exercise is a recognized time cue for circadian rhythms, influencing sleep architecture and quality across diverse human populations. While its timing and intensity affect sleep outcomes in humans, little is known about how exercise impacts sleep in horses, particularly those with early morning or late evening workloads, as is common in working or competition horses. This study sought to explore this relationship in stabled horses experiencing changes to their workload patterns. Five geldings housed at Hartpury Equestrian Centre were observed across three exercise phases (normal, increased, and return to normal) using an ABA design. Sleep-related behaviors were recorded overnight using closed-circuit television (CCTV) equipment and analyzed using a validated ethogram with continuous focal sampling. Inter-observer reliability tests confirmed consistent behavioral scoring, and data were analyzed using nonparametric statistics to compare behavioral time budgets, as well as postures, across phases. Horses spent the majority of their time awake, followed by sleep and rest, across all exercise phases. Increased exercise led to significantly longer sleep bouts (Phase B: 10.79 min vs. Phase A: 5.33 min, P < 0.05) and more frequent rest episodes. Sleep postures also changed, specifically sternal recumbency, where Phases B and C were statistically different from Phase A. Results also indicated a residual effect of exercise on sleep and rest patterns, with sleep patterns remaining altered even after a return to normal exercise (Phase C: 8.98 min), indicating prolonged recovery effects. Findings demonstrate that exercise-induced changes in sleep architecture persist beyond the intervention period, highlighting the importance of recovery planning in equine management and supporting the need for larger-scale studies to disentangle the relationship between sleep and exercise to optimize equine performance and well-being.
Copyright (c) 2026 Ivana Schork, Lorna Cameron, Megan Long, Linda Greening https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Effects of a Heated Vibration Massage Pad on Horses: Randomized, Blinded Measures of Mechanical Nociception, Behavior, and Spinal and Limb Kinematics
Therapy devices are widely marketed to horse owners, claiming to improve well-being, support musculoskeletal function, and aid injury rehabilitation, though many claims lack scientific evidence. This study evaluated the immediate (part A) and four-week (part B) effects of a heated vibration massage pad applied to the thoracic epaxial region on mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT), behavior, and kinematics of horses. A randomized, blinded design was employed with a convenience sample of 10 riding horses in treatment and control groups. Inertial motion sensors and limb markers captured kinematic data, behavior was analyzed using EquiFACS, and MNT was measured using pressure algometry. Immediately (part A) following application of the heated vibration massage pad, there were no significant changes in MNT, behavior, or dorsoventral range of motion at the poll, wither, pelvis, or tuber coxae during walk or trot, nor in minimum difference, maximum difference, and range of motion at the poll, wither, and pelvis in trot, in the treatment or the control group (all P > 0.05). Similarly, stride length and duration in walk remained unchanged. However, in trot, the treatment group exhibited minor reductions in stride length (P = 0.025, d = 0.2) and hindlimb retraction (P = 0.005, d = 0.5), with increased stride duration (P = 0.044, d = −0.17). After four weeks of regular use (part B), the treatment group showed significant increases in stride length during trot (309.8 cm ± 37.8 vs. 334.4 cm ± 35.1, P = 0.017, d = 1.38) as well as increased forelimb retraction, hindlimb protraction, and retraction. While immediate effects were negligible, consistent use of the heated vibration massage pad may enhance limb kinematics, suggesting its potential as a convenient addition to maintenance regimes for riding horses.
Copyright (c) 2026 Gillian Tabor, Natalie Bennett, Corinna Crosby, Zoe Dunham, Emily Jordan, Fiona Bloom https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Assessing the Resilience Factor: A Preliminary Investigation into a Multifaceted Approach to Individual Parasite Control in Thoroughbred Foals
Standard equine management practices contribute to the high prevalence of strongyles and to the need for deworming. Horse performance can be evaluated by following early body development. This study aimed to determine the behavior and body growth associated with strongyle fecal egg count (FEC) in 25 Thoroughbred foals aged from birth to 10 months in southern Brazil. Body weight, withers height, and FEC were determined monthly, and foals' behavior/personality was recorded twice daily by resident veterinarians following standard welfare protocols. A generalized linear mixed model was used to analyze body growth and FEC variance. There was a high correlation between weight gain before six months of age and between height and age. Although males exhibited greater variability in weight and height, no statistically significant differences were observed between sexes (P > 0.05). There was no significant association between strongyle FEC and body weight or height in any animals. Descriptive behavioral analysis revealed that only four animals were treated based on behavior/personality alterations and clinical signs (i.e., abdominal discomfort). The data showed a null-to-weak correlation between FEC and the animals' age (R² = −0.025 for females and R² = 0.168 for males). Moreover, foals had a low (0.206) FEC repeatability coefficient for sex and age, while individual overdispersion indicated a high (3.919) value. This information is crucial when designing health protocols for horses, as the expected rise in FEC after treatment may indicate a new infection that accompanies a suppressive drug strategy. These preliminary data showed that foals experienced steady body growth, independent of FEC, allowing selective treatment to be guided by a combination of periodic clinical and analytical parasitological examinations. Furthermore, this study highlights the intrinsic influence of constant veterinary care and the protection of horse health as a strong component of farm resilience.
Copyright (c) 2026 Eduarda Proença, Irineu R. Neto, Alan J. Ferreira, Ursula Y. Yoshitani, Marcelo B. Molento https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Preliminary Investigation into the Relationship Between Under-Rug Temperatures and Sleep-Related Behavior in Stabled Horses Using Non-Invasive Temperature Measures
Stabled horses are managed within a domestic environment, where the effects of artificial lighting and bedding on sleep have been reported. Beyond the environment, equine husbandry practices such as rugging or clipping are influential on equine thermoregulation. However, the influence of these practices on sleep and related behaviors is unknown, despite the link between core body temperature and the occurrence of sleep. The aim of this pilot study was to investigate the viability of using novel temperature recording equipment to determine whether a relationship between under-rug temperature and sleep-related behavior could be detected. Under-rug temperatures were measured using Thermachron iButtons© at 10-minute intervals across five nights, while closed-circuit television camera equipment enabled continuous focal observations of sleep-related behavior. Duration of behavioral states according to a pre-determined ethogram was recorded between the hours of 00:00 and 07:00 for four stabled horses. Overnight environmental temperatures were reported between -6 °C and 4 °C. Mean under-rug temperature from all horses across five nights was 22.91 ± 0.12 °C (minimum 14.0 °C, maximum 34.0 °C) and was different between nights and between individual horses. No significant relationships were identified between under-rug temperatures and total duration of behavioral states. While the iButtons demonstrated the capacity to measure temperatures, several recommendations are made for future studies based on this foundational work. The relationship between under-rug temperature and sleep behavior warrants further investigation, which in the future could include data on sleep onset or sleep quality.
Copyright (c) 2026 Isobel Bullement, Lorna Cameron, Linda Greening https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Evaluating the Relationship Across Physical Activity Domains and Chronic Pain in Adult American Equestrians: A Secondary Analysis
Chronic pain (CP) in equestrians may disrupt rider–horse movement patterns, communication, and welfare. Physical activity (PA) is used to manage CP in other populations. Equestrians engage in high PA across equestrian (EqA), barn work (BW), and non-EqA domains, yet still report high CP rates. This study aims to explore risk and protective PA factors across domains associated with self-reported CP in American equestrians. Secondary analysis of a cross-sectional survey of adult American equestrians (n = 1,612). All variables were categorical (EqA, BW, and non-EqA volume; participation level; BW tasks). Chi-square tests informed forward binary logistic regression examining odds (ORs) of reporting CP across PA domains. The sample's participation level was 23.0% professionals, 44.5% amateurs, and 32.5% recreational equestrians, with 45% experiencing CP, most commonly in the back (27.8%). Recreational riders had lower odds of experiencing CP (OR = 0.6, P < 0.001), chronic lower-leg (OR = 0.47, P = 0.004), and neck (OR = 0.57, P = 0.01) pain than professionals. Regardless of participation level, equestrians engaging in categories ≤5 hours/week of EqA had lower odds (OR = 0.46–0.62, P = 0.001–0.04) of reporting chronic back pain compared with those spending ≥15.5 hours/week. Regular running was protective against reporting CP, particularly in the back (OR = 0.62, P = 0.007) and pelvic (OR = 0.50, P = 0.02) regions. Participation level emerged as the primary risk factor for CP, followed by EqA volume for chronic back pain. Higher EqA workloads may exceed adaptive capacity regarding chronic back pain, underscoring the need for context-specific prevention strategies addressing workload management, such as physical training programs scaled to participation level and consideration of equipment fit (i.e., saddle).
Copyright (c) 2026 Elisabeth A. Ohrnberger, Kimberly I. Tumlin, Michaela M. Keener https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Gut Microbiota and Sleep Deprivation: Potential Interactions and Implications for Equine Research – Scoping Review
Background: Sleep deprivation negatively affects metabolism and the immune system. Among other factors, this condition disrupts homeostasis by altering the gut microbiota, which plays a crucial role in maintaining physiological balance in humans and rodents, including sleep regulation. However, to date, no study has directly investigated this interaction in horses. Aims: This review aims to examine the interplay between sleep deprivation and gut microbiota from a translational perspective, emphasizing the gut–brain axis and the roles of sleep and microbiota in equine health. Materials and Methods: Original research articles, meta-analyses, and literature reviews relevant to the topic were included. Database searches were conducted using carefully selected keywords to ensure comprehensive coverage of pertinent literature. Results: Sixty-three studies were reviewed, including original studies, systematic and narrative reviews, observational studies, randomized clinical trials, and experimental investigations, published between 1975 and 2025. Sleep deprivation was found to alter the gut microbiota, increasing inflammatory markers and modifying metabolic pathways, predisposing the organism to disease. Conversely, the gut microbiota also influences sleep, indicating a bidirectional relationship. Although studies on horses are lacking, preliminary evidence suggests the presence of the gut–brain axis in this species. Sleep disruption may therefore negatively influence the gut microbiota of horses, as reported in other animals. Conclusion: Sleep deprivation negatively affects the body by altering the gut microbiota in humans and rodents. Although evidence links gut microbiota and sleep to equine health, important gaps remain regarding how sleep deprivation affects microbial balance, inflammation, metabolism, and disease risk.
Copyright (c) 2025 Anny R. C. Gomes, Tiago M. Oliveira, Guilherme G. Campos, Raquel Y. A. Baccarin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Effect of Physical Activity on Cytokine Production: A Systematic Parallel Study of Horse and Human Athletes
Cytokines are glycoproteins responsible for cellular communication, influenced by exercise. Their levels vary depending on the intensity and type of physical activity in both humans and horses. This review aimed to assess the effects of various types and intensities of exercise on the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. A systematic search (2000–2022) was performed using databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Studies involving horses (n = 3) and/or humans (n = 21) undergoing physical activity were selected, resulting in 24 eligible articles. IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-10 levels increased after high-intensity exercise in both species, while moderate-intensity activity yielded more variable results. Some cytokines, such as IL-1β and IL-17, exhibited species-specific differences. Cytokine production is influenced by exercise intensity and duration. The observed differences between horses and humans suggest physiological divergences, warranting further research in the field of exercise immunology and other related disciplines. As a potential outcome of this work, we propose that horses could serve as an appropriate translational animal model for human athletes in exercise immunology, justifying a more comprehensive comparative approach.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ifeoluwa Peace Oladapo, Abolaji Samson Olagunju, Olalekan Chris Akinsulie, Eduarda Proença, Ursula Yaeko Yoshitani, Marcelo Beltrão Molento https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
What Are the Perceived Barriers to Avoiding Negative and Promoting Positive Equine Mental States for United Kingdom (UK) Horse Owners?
Understanding barriers that United Kingdom (UK) horse owners face in optimizing welfare-friendly management choices is key to providing a good life for horses. Equine management is often based on tradition, and horse owners may unknowingly rely on outdated practices and lack awareness of modern welfare assessment frameworks, including the Five Domains Model. Resistance to change can arise from concerns over safety, cost, and tradition, with uncertainty prompting a return to familiar routines. Identifying implementation barriers allows for the development of practical, owner-focused strategies to support enhanced positive mental states. Qualitative data from a 2021 online survey of UK horse owners and carers (n = 258) were analyzed for the first time. Responses (n = 247) to the question, "What barriers or limitations do you see to avoiding a negative mental state and promoting a positive mental state in horses?" were thematically analyzed. Themes that emerged were "Livery Yard Restrictions," "Lack of Resources," "Lack of Knowledge and Education," "Tradition and Performance Pressures," "Natural Living Conditions," and "Health and Welfare Concerns." Livery yard policies and traditional practices often limited individualized equine management intended to promote positive mental states. Many highlighted insufficient social interactions and managing health issues as key challenges. Barriers to avoiding negative and promoting positive equine mental states were multifaceted and often systemic, although these data were collected in 2019 and the sample may include those with an existing interest in this topic. Addressing identified barriers requires targeted education, practical support, and collaboration with livery establishments to enable more individualized equine management to promote a good life for horses.
Copyright (c) 2025 Kerry Hogg, Katharine Fletcher, Ella Bartlett, Lisa Ashton, Lorna Cameron https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Prevalence and Perceived Effects of Enrichment Elements in Outdoor Areas on the Behavior and Welfare of Group-Housed Horses
Environmental enrichment has the potential to cultivate positive equine welfare through agency-driven opportunities for socialization, foraging, and exploration. Although the beneficial impacts of enrichment are well documented for captive wildlife, there is comparatively little research on the applications and impacts of enrichment for domestic horses. Our aim was to understand the use and perceived impacts of enrichment for group-housed horses through a global survey of barn owners/managers. The survey asked questions on demographics, horses, and facility characteristics, as well as the use and perceived effects of foraging, structural, and sensory enrichment on horse behavior and welfare (e.g., perceived effects on health issues and stereotypies). We received 132 responses from 16 countries. Data were summarized using descriptive statistics and visualizations. Fisher's exact tests were used to explore the significance of reported behavior changes, and a chi-squared test was used to examine the relationship between the size of the turnout area and the number of enrichment elements. Enrichment elements providing horses with foraging opportunities were the most prevalent type of enrichment, while offering structural diversity and sensory stimulation were also much-utilized enrichment strategies. Respondent data suggested a significant, direct relationship between the prevalence of enrichment and positive behavior change (p < 0.001). Respondents reported an increase in natural behaviors since the onset of enrichment provision, including increased foraging (66.7%), play (65.2%), and locomotion (78.8%). They also reported their horses to be calmer (forage enrichment 30.5%, structural enrichment 13.8%, sensory enrichment 7.4%), more social (forage enrichment 9.4%, structural enrichment 8.9%, sensory enrichment 2.8%), and more confident when being handled on the ground and under saddle (structural enrichment 8.1%). Most respondents reported that providing enrichment elements improved the health issues their horses were dealing with (hoof problems 88.7%, laminitis 91.7%, EMS 89.6%, lameness 93.5%, equine asthma 88.5%, others 88.9%) and indicated decreased frequencies of stereotypic behaviors (weaving 100%, box/fence walking 100%, crib-biting 66.6%, others 50%). No significant relationship was found between the size of the turnout area and the number of enrichment items (p = 0.33). Overall, these findings suggest positive impacts of environmental enrichment on the behavior and welfare of group-housed horses, warranting further research as a potential welfare-enhancing tool.
Copyright (c) 2025 Nicole Miggitsch, Cynthia Joanne Naydani, Bryony E. Lancaster https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Through Someone Else's Eyes: A Case Study of a Facilitator's View of the Perceived Benefits of Equine-Facilitated Learning (EFL)
Equine-Facilitated Learning (EFL) is a non-riding program that involves working with horses and relies on experiential learning for the client. EFL is used to facilitate increased awareness of individual consciousness by using equine-oriented activities to obtain positive outcomes, with emotional, social, physical, and cognitive goals. Current research suggests that EFL develops social skills and improves a sense of self in a range of clients from their own point of view. Given that client accounts may offer a limited perspective in some contexts, this case study explores facilitator insights to deepen understanding of EFL benefits. Taking an inductive approach, a single 2-hour semi-structured interview was conducted with an EFL facilitator who has owned and managed an EFL establishment since 2011. Thematic analysis identified three higher-order themes: emotional intelligence development, behavioral benefits, and the impact of the triadic dynamic: the facilitator, horse, and client. These themes further revealed the facilitator's perception that the client's emotional intelligence developed through mindfulness, introspective awareness, confidence, and empowerment, leading to behavioral benefits in both physical changes and socialization. Finally, the importance of the triadic dynamic highlighted the role played by both the facilitator and the horse in mirroring, creating a safe space, and signposting for the client. This study adds an additional aspect to the current body of scientific research on the role that the facilitator and horse play in achieving the positive outcomes described. Future research should aim to gain further perspectives from those involved in facilitating EFL and to enhance understanding of the role the horse plays in the EFL process.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sara de Jong, Emma Davies https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Colombian Criollo Equine Gallop Variations
Kinematics is a noninvasive technique for observing locomotion characteristics in equines and other species through video analysis. The present study aimed to identify the gallop characteristics of the Colombian Criollo horse and verify whether they exhibit a suspension phase through kinematic analysis. Horses were ridden and filmed from a lateral perspective while galloping along a five-meter linear trajectory during an official breeding event. Movement was analyzed via Windows Movie Maker® software, which enables the examination of 30 frames per second to observe the support and lift sequences of the thoracic and pelvic limbs throughout the trajectory. The data revealed 10 cycles of asymmetric gaits classified as marching, with an average speed of 2.29 m per second (SD = 0.64 m/s). The horses executed cycles consisting of anterior and posterior tripedal support (100%), anterior and posterior monopedal support (97.5%), diagonal bipedal support (95%), posterior bipedal support (87.5%), lateral bipedal support (30%), and quadrupedal support (17.5%). None of the sequences resembled the three-beat canter variations. They did not conform to the characteristic cross- or rotational four-beat gallop patterns, as the horses did not exhibit a suspension moment. Therefore, the Colombian Criollo horse's gallop is distinct from that of other breeds because of its marching nature and absence of a suspension phase.
Copyright (c) 2025 Hector García Duarte, Daniel Parra-Torres, Heitor Cestari, Ana Liz Garcia Alves, Marcos Jun Watanabe, Celso Antonio Rodrigues, Ricardo Costa Aranha, Carlos Alberto Hussni https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Effect of a Single Acupressure Treatment on the Mechanical Nociceptive Thresholds (MNTs) of the Equine Epaxial Back Musculature
Aims: Equine acupressure therapies possess an abundance of acclaimed anecdotal evidence; however, scientific validation remains limited. This investigation aimed to explore the effect of manual acupressure on the mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNTs) of the equine epaxial musculature. Materials and Methods: The study design was a randomized, single crossover trial involving ten horses (five geldings and five mares) of various ages (16 ± 4.49 years). Horses were split into two groups and received a 10-minute acupressure or sham treatment. Nine acupressure points were selected and treated with 30 seconds of direct light pressure followed by six full circles. Each horse was assessed for points of sensitivity at three points bilaterally along the epaxial musculature, before, immediately after, and one day after the acupressure or sham treatment. A two-week washout period was implemented; the groups were reversed, and the protocol was repeated. Data were both parametric and nonparametric; therefore, to ascertain whether differences occurred in MNT values across the time points, a series of repeated measures ANOVAs and Friedman's analyses were undertaken. Where significant differences were found, post hoc Wilcoxon tests with Bonferroni correction identified how MNTs differed with time. Further paired t-tests or Wilcoxon rank tests determined whether differences occurred in the percentage of change between the treatment and control groups. Results: The results of the study suggest that acupressure elicits an immediate increase in MNTs in the epaxial musculature, most significantly at the thoracolumbar region. A decrease in this response could indicate lower sensitivity of the back, allowing better back kinematics and possibly improved performance.
Copyright (c) 2025 Adelaide R. Chinn, Roberta Blake, Stephanie Child https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
With Great Power Comes Great Responsibility: Equestrian Coaches, the Real 'Influencers' Within the Equestrian Community, Share Their Perspectives on a Sustainable Future
Background and Aims: The sustainability of equestrianism, as a sport and as a way of life, is currently in jeopardy. This is primarily due to the growing societal concerns regarding equine welfare in performance sport and the associated unethical human behavior. Expanding upon a growing body of research and action within the sector, this study looks to those who stand in the middle of the arena to shed light on the antecedents and consequences of poor horsemanship and to explore how the industry as a whole can work together to ensure a sustainable future. Materials and Methods: Sixteen British Horse Society Fellows and/or United Kingdom Coaching Certificate Level 4 coaches were recruited for this qualitative study. Participants took part in guided roundtable discussions, which were audio/video recorded, transcribed, and then analyzed using thematic analysis. Results: Three high-order themes were identified. First, Individual Responsibilities in Equestrian Sport, with subthemes of human behavior change, advocating for the horse, and the coach as an ambassador for best practice. Second, Comprehensive Equestrian Coach Education, with subthemes of the role of mentorship, vicarious and continual learning, technical and coaching competencies, and formal coach education. Third, Collective Responsibilities in Equestrian Sport, with subthemes of horsemanship education, challenges and opportunities for sustainability, and cohesive practice for horse welfare. Conclusion: Coaches offer a vital source of counsel and are key influencers within the equestrian community and, therefore, should be considered instrumental in creating a sustainable future for equestrian sport from the inside out. To this end, equestrian coach education must ensure that, alongside technical and coaching competencies, the ability to demonstrate and teach the skills and values that provide psychological safety for humans involved in equestrianism is also taught and assessed.
Copyright (c) 2025 Lauren R. Tufton, Nichola Kentzer, Rosanna Walters-Symons https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Exploration of Motivational Differences in German and Icelandic Equestrians
Little is known about how institutionalized structures in Germany and agrarian traditions in Iceland influence riders’ motivational profiles and shape participation norms. In this study, we examine the extent to which differences in equestrianism depend on the cultural context and type of rider, thereby closing a gap in cross-national research on sport motives. A representative sample of German (n = 788) and Icelandic (n = 145) riders completed the Bernese Motive and Goal Inventory (BMZI). Group differences were analyzed using effect sizes, and a two-way ANOVA was conducted to examine interactions between country and rider type. Results revealed that competitive riders in both countries prioritized competition and external image, while leisure riders emphasized intrinsic motives such as nature engagement and well-being (e.g., Icelandic leisure vs. competitive, d = 0.44). German riders, supported by institutionalized sport structures, reported higher activation and aesthetic motives (German leisure vs. Icelandic leisure, d = 0.45), whereas Icelandic riders, influenced by regulatory challenges, prioritized heritage and practical horsemanship, with leisure riders reporting stronger distraction motives (d = 0.59). Cross-country interactions emerged, including German competitive riders valuing horse handling more than their Icelandic counterparts (d = 0.74). Perceived femininity of equestrianism was significantly higher among German riders (d = 2.47), and fitness and physique motives were low across all groups. These findings underscore the importance of sociocultural frameworks and gender perceptions in shaping equestrian motivations, advancing debates on how sports adapt to local identities, and informing more inclusive participation models.
Copyright (c) 2025 Kathrin Schütz, Clievins Selva, Marie Hollstein https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Head–Neck Positions in Ridden Horses: Defining Degrees of Flexion and Their Impact on Equine Behavior and Welfare
Horse sports face public scrutiny, particularly regarding concerns about horse welfare. Understanding how the physical positioning of the horse's head and neck while being ridden affects behavior is crucial for improving welfare standards. This study aimed to investigate the influence of head–neck position (HNP) in ridden horses–specifically, the vertical and poll angles–on conflict behavior (CB). Furthermore, it aimed to identify a critical threshold at which HNP significantly affects behavioral outcomes. Elite dressage horses were observed during warm-ups and tests at competitions, and horses presented in educational videos were analyzed to examine the relationship between HNP and CB. A total of 191 rides were analyzed, HNP parameters (angle to the vertical of nasal plane, poll angle, and shoulder angle) and CB indicators (e.g., unusual oral behaviors and tail swishing) were recorded over 3-minute intervals using Observer XT (Noldus). Data were analyzed using general linear mixed-effects models, with CB (sum of all behaviors) as the response variable and horse-rider-ID as a random effect. Both poll and vertical angles had significant negative effects on CB, indicating that horses exhibited more CB when these angles decreased (p < 0.001, df = 139.64/137.28, respectively). Shoulder angle also had a significant impact on CB in one model (p = 0.014, df = 136.61). A vertical angle of -7.5° behind the vertical was identified as the cut-off value associated with an increase in CB. Stallions exhibited more CB than mares and geldings (p < 0.001, df = 73.16). The models demonstrated good fit, with consistently non-significant effects of age, breed, and bit type. Optimizing HNP during riding is crucial for enhancing behavioral well-being and the overall welfare of dressage horses in competitive settings.
Copyright (c) 2025 Kathrin Kienapfel, Elke Hartmann, Belinda Preiss, Iris Bachmann https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Comparison of Transverse Thoracolumbar Angles in Dressage and Endurance Horses Using 3D Light Scanning and Comparison with Commercial Saddle Gullet Angles
The thoracolumbar profile is of interest in relation to saddle design and saddle fit. Flexible-curve rulers have previously been used to gather thoracolumbar profiles in horses; however, 3D light scanning offers a potential non-contact alternative method to estimate the cross-sectional shape of the region in greater detail. The aims of this study were to (1) describe the thoracolumbar profiles of endurance and dressage horses using 3D light scanning and (2) compare the wither profiles to saddle manufacturers' gullet bar angles. 3D light scans of the thoracolumbar region were obtained from 23 fit and competing Arabian endurance horses and 21 dressage horses of mixed breed competing at advanced or higher, each from two different stables. Markers were placed by palpation on the caudal scapula (V1) and T18 (V4). Images were imported into Meshmixer. A transversely oriented plane cut was taken at the level of the marker of the left caudal scapula, perpendicular to the back surface (V1), and at the level of the marker at T18. Two further cuts were made at the base of the withers (V2) and the lowest point/midpoint of the back (V3). The mean transverse back angle at V1 was 87 ± 8° for the endurance horse sample and 99 ± 10° for the dressage horse sample (P < 0.0001), and at V4 was 141 ± 7° (endurance) and 144 ± 6° (dressage) (P < 0.0001). For both endurance horses and dressage horses, there was a significant effect of location on back transverse angle (V1 to V4; P < 0.001), with V1 the narrowest and V4 the widest. While there is little consistency in what gullet angle a "medium" gullet bar would actually be, the range of angles measured at the shoulder in the present study reflects the most common gullet sizes offered by six manufacturers of English saddles.
Copyright (c) 2025 David J. Marlin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Demographic Predictors of Chronic Pain in American Equestrians: A Secondary Analysis
Equestrians report a high rate of chronic pain (CP), which can disrupt horse-rider movement patterns, communication, and safety. Equestrian-related risk factors (i.e., participation level) for reporting CP are well established, while demographic predictors remain underexamined in American equestrians. The purpose of this study was to examine demographic predictors of self-reported CP in American equestrians. This study was a secondary analysis of cross-sectional survey data from adult American equestrians (n = 1,968) that included self-reported CP status (no formal definition or diagnosis) and demographic variables. All variables were categorical. Chi-square tests (P < 0.25) informed forward-selection binary logistic regressions to estimate odds (ORs) of reporting CP across demographic variables, with significance set at P < 0.05. Approximately 45% of the sample reported general CP. The sample was predominantly female (96%). Participation level was a significant predictor of reporting general CP and chronic back, pelvic, and lower leg pain, with professionals having 1.71–1.95 greater odds (P < 0.05) than recreational equestrians, and 1.39–1.80 greater odds than amateur equestrians (P < 0.05). Body mass predicted general CP and chronic back pain, with riders weighing <91 kg having lower odds of reporting general and back CP (ORs = 0.45–0.60, P < 0.05). Model discrimination was modest across analyses (c-statistics: 0.58–0.63). Participation level remains significantly associated with reporting. Body mass emerged as a potential predictor, while other demographic predictors (e.g., age and sex) remain uncertain with regard to reporting CP in American equestrians. Future research should examine body mass, riding biomechanics, and joint-specific load distribution across disciplines with consideration of horse and human health.
What Is Understood About the Welfare of Horses Working in Australian Cattle Feedlots: An Introductory Survey
Ridden horses are commonly used to manage cattle in feedlots in a range of countries, including Australia. While there is public concern about the welfare of cattle in feedlots, research into feedlot working horses and their welfare is lacking to date. Accordingly, an online survey was initially developed to ascertain the views of Australian animal and equine communities concerning this cohort of horses and the work they perform. In addition, respondents were asked about their views on animal welfare in general. The survey comprised a mixture of Likert scale questions consisting of six options, multiple-choice responses, and open-ended responses, and was completed by a total of 440 participants. The majority of participants were involved in the equine industry (95.87%), and therefore the findings reflect an equine industry viewpoint. Animal welfare in general was considered to be at a minimum important (χ2 = 20.1, df = 5, P = 0.001), and animal well-being was considered extremely important (χ2 = 10.59, df = 4, P = 0.032). Animal agency was considered important or very important by a majority (354) of participants (χ2 = 10.6, df = 5, P = 0.06). Participants strongly agreed that cattle welfare has the potential to be improved by the use of horses on feedlots (χ2 = 6.17, df = 2, P = 0.046). Participants clearly believe that animal and horse welfare is important both generally and in the feedlot industry. This aligns with wider community concerns about the welfare of animals used for, and in association with, food production.
Copyright (c) 2026 Karly Liffen, Cathrynne Henshall, Hayley Randle https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Tracking Horse and Rider Speed During Warm-Up and CCI4* Short and Long Format Cross-Country Using a Commercial Wearable GPS Sensor
There is some evidence that appropriate warm-up and pacing are key to successful performance and injury risk reduction in equestrian endurance and horseracing. To date, only limited studies of warm-up for eventing cross-country have been reported, and to our knowledge, there has been no report of continuous cross-country speed and pacing strategy. The aim of the present study was to investigate how riders warm up and the pacing strategy they use on cross-country. Riders competing in CCI4* short (n = 11) and long (n = 7) competition were fitted with a Catapult Vector S7 sensor. Ten horses completed the CCI4*S, and all 7 completed the CCI4*L. Riders spent significantly longer warming up for the CCI4*L (30.2 ± 9.2 min; mean ± SD) than for the CCI4*S (20.7 ± 7.0 min; P = 0.029). Mean speed on the CCI4*S was 525 ± 15 m/min (range 500–544 m/min) and was slower than the CCI4*L 557 ± 21 m/min (range 533–584 m/min) (P = 0. 002). Variance in speed over the whole course for each individual horse (SD/mean*100) was 22 ± 3% for CCI4*S and 24 ± 3% for CCI4*L (P > 0.05). Mean jump speed was 404 ± 12 m/min (range 393–424 m/min) for CCI4*S and 393 ± 16 m/min (range 361–405 m/min) for CCI4*L and was not significantly different (P > 0.05). Differences were found in mean peak inter-fence/combination speed, 639 ± 20 m/min (range 615–674 m/min) for CCI4*S and 678 ± 28 m/min (range 634–703 m/min) for CCI4*L (P = 0.004). High variance in speed over the course and very low or very high fence approach speeds may potentially play a role in fatigue and/or fall risk and warrant further study.
Copyright (c) 2026 David J. Marlin, Russell McKechnie-Guire, Heather Cameron-Whytock, Andrew Lombard https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Emerging Practices and Technologies for the Other 23 Hours of Equidae Management
Copyright (c) 2025 Linda Greening, Ivana Schork, Lorna Cameron, Hayley Randle, Inga Wolframm https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Landscape of Choice: The Influence of Landscape Features on the Behavior of Sport Horses
Understanding how horses interact with landscapes is key to designing environments that support welfare and biodiversity. Yet, little is known about how domestic horses use specific elements within a landscape. This study examined the behavioral interactions of seven Swedish warmblood mares (1–3 years old) with naturally occurring landscape features in the Kumlan Nature Reserve (Sweden) during July and August 2021. HoofStep® sensors continuously recorded equine behaviors, categorized as highly active, active, resting, or eating. Manly Selection Ratios (MSRs) were used to assess landscape feature selection (LFS) relative to availability. A generalized linear model (Gamma distribution, log link) tested the effects of horse, behavior, landscape feature, time of day, temperature, rainfall, and month on LFS. Significant main effects included horse, landscape feature, month, rainfall, and temperature (p < .001). Two-way interactions showed that behavior was linked to LFS and that selection was influenced by weather. For instance, tree rows and hedges were preferred during rainfall (Exp(B) = 1.17, p = 0.01), but avoided as temperatures rose (Exp(B) = -0.51, p < 0.001). Three-way interactions highlighted individual preferences, i.e., Horse A preferred resting on a sandbank (Exp(B) = 42.48, p < 0.05), and Horse B in a blackberry patch (Exp(B) = 25.22, p < 0.05). Horse C was active on a sandbank with vegetation (Exp(B) = 22.57, p = 0.01), while Horse D preferred the pool (Exp(B) = 90.44, p < 0.001). Findings suggest that both landscape and weather shape equine behavior, with notable individual variation. Landscape design should incorporate diverse features to meet the behavioral needs of individual horses and to support welfare and biodiversity goals.
Copyright (c) 2025 Inga Wolframm, Thomas Engels, Mattias Lindström, Karl Forssman https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Exploring Well-Being in Thoroughbred Horse Breeding: A Systematic Narrative Review Applying the PERMA+4 Framework
Background: Staff shortages in the horseracing industry may impact horse and staff well-being. Working conditions such as a high workload, and poor work-life balance are found to influence staff retention. Thoroughbred breeders and staff work long hours with limited job control. However, there is a dearth of research examining breeding staff well-being. Aims: This article aims to explore associations between working conditions and well-being in thoroughbred horse breeders and stud farm staff. Materials and methods: A search of studies published up to January 2025 and available in PubMed, Scopus, and PsycINFO was performed and is reported in line with PRISMA-S. Included articles were deductively coded into predetermined themes using the PERMA+4 framework for work-related well-being (positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, accomplishment, physical health, work environment, mindset, and economic security). Results: A total of 21 studies were included for narrative analysis spanning the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and Ireland. Results suggest that physical and psychosocial working conditions on stud farms may negatively impact staff well-being and retention through poor work-life balance, employee relations, and training and progression opportunities. Well-being may be influenced through the PERMA+4 dimensions of relationships, accomplishment, physical health, and work environment. Conclusion: This review demonstrates that the PERMA+4 model may be used as a theoretical framework to understand associations between working conditions and well-being in thoroughbred breeding work. Further research on the application of positive organizational psychology in this sector may increase understanding of and enhance staff well-being and retention.
Copyright (c) 2025 Claire McDonald, SarahJane Cullen, Siobhan O'Connor, Shane Noonan-Holohan, Giles Warrington, Jennifer Pugh, Adrian McGoldrick, Carol Nolan, Ciara Losty https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Conditionality in the Equestrian World: A Preliminary Approach
The theory of conditionality originates from the field of social thinking, specifically from the study of normative aspects that are considered conditional. It examines legitimate transgressions and has numerous applications, particularly in road safety. The originality of this study lies in applying this theory to the equestrian world to highlight "normative latitudes" and the risks associated with the human-horse relationship. The main tool used was a Conditional Scripts Questionnaire (CSQ), based on scenarios and situations adapted to the equestrian world. This tool consisted of 7 scenarios: riding helmet, protective vest, riding boots, riding pants, snaffle bridle, protective horse boots, and safety rules. In each scenario, several conditional situations were evaluated, such as "The equine partner belongs to a riding club." A link to an online questionnaire was completed by 46 riders recruited using the snowball sampling technique. The results of the CSQ, analyzed through chi-square testing and quartile analysis, revealed a significant difference in the ordinal distribution of the seven scenarios when considered collectively. The scenario with the lowest conditionality was wearing riding pants, while the scenario with the highest conditionality was the use of a protective vest. Although each scenario varied in its level of conditionality, the degree of intra-scenario conditionality remained consistent across all situations. Additional measures related to risk perception suggested that certain contexts, such as riding one's horse, tended to increase conditionality.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sandrine Gaymard, Florian Beucher https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Evaluation of Collagen Supplements to Reduce the Occurrence of Orthopedic Injuries in Trained Foals
Hydrolyzed collagen is a popular supplement for equine joint health due to its potential role in cartilage metabolism and tissue repair. However, scientific validation of its efficacy remains limited. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of hydrolyzed collagen supplementation in the diet of trained foals on the occurrence of orthopedic injuries and joint changes. Twenty Mangalarga Marchador foals were used and randomly allocated to either a collagen supplementation group (50 g/day for 180 days) or a control group. During this period, the foals were exercised five consecutive days per week. Every 36 days, the hock region was evaluated by radiography and ultrasonography. The concentrations of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in the articular synovial fluid were also measured. For imaging parameters, the data were analyzed using non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis tests. For synovial fluid parameters, the data were subjected to analysis of variance, and the means were compared using Tukey's test, with a significance level set to 0.05. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were observed in radiographic, ultrasonographic, and synovial fluid parameters, indicating reduced inflammation and joint degeneration in the supplemented group. It is concluded that hydrolyzed collagen supplementation reduced inflammation and joint degeneration in trained foals without altering joint homeostasis. The significance of this finding is substantial, as it proposes a nutritional strategy to prevent joint disorders while reducing reliance on invasive interventions. However, further research involving extended follow-up and varied supplementation protocols is critical to confirm the sustainability of these outcomes and validate the long-term efficacy of this approach.
Copyright (c) 2025 Angelo Mateus Campos de Araújo Júnior, Alisson Herculano da Silva, Juliana Galvão Müller Arantes, Raquel Pereira Buroxid, Ana Lucia Miluzzi Yamada, Luiz Antonio Jorge de Moraes Filho, Rafael Resende Faleiros, Alexandre Augusto de Oliveira Gobesso https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Effect of Age on the Date of First Ovulation in Mares Subjected to an Artificial Lighting Regimen During Seasonal Anestrus
Previous studies have shown that artificial lighting can reduce the duration of anestrus in the horse. Here, we investigated whether age can affect the date of first ovulation in mares subjected to an artificial lighting regimen beginning before the winter solstice. Mares (n = 224) of different breeds aged 1 to 27 years were divided into five groups by age: a) 1–5 years (n = 71), b) 6–10 years (n = 38), c) 11–15 years (n = 44), d) 16–20 years (n = 30), and e) 21–27 years (n = 16). 25 mares apparently failed to respond to treatment and were excluded from the analysis. Light treatment began on a mean starting date of November 27. Ovulation was determined through transrectal ultrasonography at regular intervals. The age of the mare significantly influenced the date of first ovulation, with mares aged 1 to 5 years ovulating significantly earlier than all other age groups (P < 0.01). The interval from the start of treatment to ovulation in this group was shorter than for all other groups. A significantly larger proportion of mares in the youngest group (25.7%) ovulated before February 1 compared to all other age groups combined (6.9%). The proportion of mares that failed to respond to treatment was significantly larger in mares older than 15 years (P < 0.01). These results show that under winter artificial lighting, first ovulation occurs earlier in young mares, likely due to a lessened entrainment to the natural photoperiod.
Copyright (c) 2025 John R. Newcombe, Domingo J. Tortonese https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
What Does It Take? Changing the Tide on Staffing Issues in the Equestrian Industry
The equine industry faces increasing scrutiny regarding its social license to operate (SLO), with appropriate care for horses at its center. Grooms play a vital role in professional horse care and management, yet their own working conditions often remain poor, resulting in an increasing number leaving the industry. Building on previous research, this study explored grooms’ perspectives on the changes needed to improve their profession’s long-term viability, and the types of future initiatives they believe would effectively address these issues. An online survey targeting professional grooms received 1,318 valid responses. Thematic analysis was used to analyze qualitative responses to two questions focusing on aspects related to Sustainable Workforce and Future Initiatives. For Sustainable Workforce, 15 unique lower-order themes were grouped into four higher-order themes: Working Conditions, Recognition and Respect, Future Prospects and Personal Development, and Acceptance and Status Quo. For Future Initiatives, 19 lower-order themes were organized into three higher-order themes: Working Conditions, External Recognition, and Change in General. Participants considered improved working conditions—particularly better pay, reasonable working hours, and legal protections—vital to ensuring the sustainability of the grooming profession. Respondents emphasized the importance of initiatives that address such tangible improvements, in addition to aspects such as unionization and health support, rather than symbolic recognition alone. Addressing these issues is critical for improving job satisfaction, retaining grooms, and ensuring horse welfare, ultimately contributing to the industry's SLO and long-term viability.
Copyright (c) 2025 Susanna L. Ole, Inga A. Wolframm https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0