Assessing the Toxic Effects of Brine Discharge from the World’s Largest Desalination Plant, Gulf Coast of Saudi Arabia
Keywords:
Gulf, desalination, brine discharge, chlorination, toxic effectsAbstract
The Jubail desalination and power plants of the Saline Water Conversion Corporation in Saudi Arabia withdraw ≈ 500 × 103 m3/h and discharge ≈ 470 × 103 m3/h of brine and cooling water. In return, the plants produce ≈ 1.4 × 106 m3/d of desalted water. The shallow depths of the Arabian Gulf render it prone to environmental degradation. Brine discharge could potentially result in the loss of marine life, affect biodiversity, and negatively affect the distribution of marine production and food chains. This study presents the results of in vitro and in vivo toxicity of water samples and sediments from the brine discharge site using rotifer cysts, a bioluminescent bacterium, and biofilm formation. Results of in vitro tests showed no difference in the hatching and survival of larval rotifer between discharged brine and pristine seawater. However, there was significant inhibition of light emitted by the bioluminescent bacterium in brine samples, and this was attributed to the effects of chlorination. Attachment slides used in vivo showed the development of algae and bacteria in the brine, indicating a biofilm formation.
References
Li Y, Liu X, Zhang S, Yao Y, Yao X, Xu J, et al. Dissolving process of a cellulose bunch in ionic liquids: a molecular dynamics study. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2015;17:17894–905. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5CP02009C.
Xu K, Xiao Y, Cao Y, Peng S, Fan M, Wang K. Dissolution of cellulose in 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium methyl phosphonate ionic liquid and its composite system with Na2PHO3. Carbohydr Polym 2019;209:382–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.12.040.
Brehm M, Pulst M, Kressler J, Sebastiani D. Triazolium-Based Ionic Liquids: A Novel Class of Cellulose Solvents. J Phys Chem B 2019;123:3994–4003. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcb.8b12082.
Swatloski RP, Spear SK, Holbrey JD, Rogers RD. Dissolution of Cellose with Ionic Liquids. J Am Chem Soc 2002;124:4974–5. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja025790m.
Yang J, Lu X, Zhang Y, Xu J, Yang Y, Zhou Q. A facile ionic liquid approach to prepare cellulose fiber with good mechanical properties directly from corn stalks. Green Energy & Environment 2020;5:223–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gee.2019.12.004.
Zhang Y, Bakshi BR, Demessie ES. Life Cycle Assessment of an Ionic Liquid versus Molecular Solvents and Their Applications. Environ Sci Technol 2008;42:1724–30. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0713983.
Xu A, Wang J, Wang H. Effects of anionic structure and lithium salts addition on the dissolution of cellulose in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium-based ionic liquid solvent systems. Green Chem 2010;12:268–75. https://doi.org/10.1039/B916882F.
Nie Y, Li C, Sun A, Meng H, Wang Z. Extractive Desulfurization of Gasoline Using Imidazolium-Based Phosphoric Ionic Liquids. Energy Fuels 2006;20:2083–7. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef060170i.
Kamiya N, Matsushita Y, Hanaki M, Nakashima K, Narita M, Goto M, et al. Enzymatic in situ saccharification of cellulose in aqueous-ionic liquid media. Biotechnol Lett 2008;30:1037–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10529-008-9638-0.
Falca G, Musteata V-E, Behzad AR, Chisca S, Nunes SP. Cellulose hollow fibers for organic resistant nanofiltration. Journal of Membrane Science 2019;586:151–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2019.05.009.
Li W, Wang J, Nie Y, Wang D, Xu H, Zhang S. Separation of soluble saccharides from the aqueous solution containing ionic liquids by electrodialysis. Separation and Purification Technology 2020;251:117402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2020.117402.
Zhao Z, Shi S, Cao H, Li Y, Van der Bruggen B. Comparative studies on fouling of homogeneous anion exchange membranes by different structured organics in electrodialysis. Journal of Environmental Sciences 2019;77:218–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2018.07.018.
Lee H-J, Choi J-H, Cho J, Moon S-H. Characterization of anion exchange membranes fouled with humate during electrodialysis. Journal of Membrane Science 2002;203:115–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-7388(01)00792-X.
Lee H-J, Hong M-K, Han S-D, Shim J, Moon S-H. Analysis of fouling potential in the electrodialysis process in the presence of an anionic surfactant foulant. Journal of Membrane Science 2008;325:719–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2008.08.045.
Xia Q, Qiu L, Yu S, Yang H, Li L, Ye Y, et al. Effects of Alkaline Cleaning on the Conversion and Transformation of Functional Groups on Ion-Exchange Membranes in Polymer-Flooding Wastewater Treatment: Desalination Performance, Fouling Behavior, and Mechanism. Environ Sci Technol 2019;53:14430–40. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b05815.
Bukhovets A, Eliseeva T, Oren Y. Fouling of anion-exchange membranes in electrodialysis of aromatic amino acid solution. Journal of Membrane Science 2010;364:339–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2010.08.030.
Tanaka N, Nagase M, Higa M. Organic fouling behavior of commercially available hydrocarbon-based anion-exchange membranes by various organic-fouling substances. Desalination 2012;296:81–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2012.04.010.
Guo H, Xiao L, Yu S, Yang H, Hu J, Liu G, et al. Analysis of anion exchange membrane fouling mechanism caused by anion polyacrylamide in electrodialysis. Desalination 2014;346:46–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.05.010.
Thompson DW, Tremblay AY. Fouling in steady and unsteady state electrodialysis. Desalination 1983;47:181–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/0011-9164(83)87071-4.
Bleha M, Tishchenko G, Šumberová V, Kůdela V. Characteristic of the critical state of membranes in ED-desalination of milk whey. Desalination 1992;86:173–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/0011-9164(92)80032-5.
Bailly M, Roux-de Balmann H, Aimar P, Lutin F, Cheryan M. Production processes of fermented organic acids targeted around membrane operations: design of the concentration step by conventional electrodialysis. Journal of Membrane Science 2001;191:129–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-7388(01)00459-8.
Hábová V, Melzoch K, Rychtera M, Sekavová B. Electrodialysis as a useful technique for lactic acid separation from a model solution and a fermentation broth. Desalination 2004;162:361–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(04)00070-0.
Grossman G, Sonin AA. Membrane fouling in electrodialysis: a model and experiments. Desalination 1973;12:107–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(00)80178-2.
Grossman G, Sonin AA. Experimental study of the effects of hydrodynamics and membrane fouling in electrodialysis. Desalination 1972;10:157–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(00)80084-3.
Mulyati S, Takagi R, Fujii A, Ohmukai Y, Matsuyama H. Simultaneous improvement of the monovalent anion selectivity and antifouling properties of an anion exchange membrane in an electrodialysis process, using polyelectrolyte multilayer deposition. Journal of Membrane Science 2013;431:113–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2012.12.022.
Mulyati S, Takagi R, Fujii A, Ohmukai Y, Maruyama T, Matsuyama H. Improvement of the antifouling potential of an anion exchange membrane by surface modification with a polyelectrolyte for an electrodialysis process. Journal of Membrane Science 2012;417–418:137–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2012.06.024.
Bdiri M, Dammak L, Larchet C, Hellal F, Porozhnyy M, Nevakshenova E, et al. Characterization and cleaning of anion-exchange membranes used in electrodialysis of polyphenol-containing food industry solutions; comparison with cation-exchange membranes. Separation and Purification Technology 2019;210:636–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.08.044.
Bdiri M, Dammak L, Chaabane L, Larchet C, Hellal F, Nikonenko V, et al. Cleaning of cation-exchange membranes used in electrodialysis for food industry by chemical solutions. Separation and Purification Technology 2018;199:114–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.01.056.
Ghalloussi R, Garcia-Vasquez W, Chaabane L, Dammak L, Larchet C, Deabate SV, et al. Ageing of ion-exchange membranes in electrodialysis: A structural and physicochemical investigation. Journal of Membrane Science 2013;436:68–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2013.02.011.
Strathmann H, editor. Ion-Exchange Membrane Separation Processes. vol. 9. Elsevier B.V.; 2004.
Chen S-S, Li C-W, Hsu H-D, Lee P-C, Chang Y-M, Yang C-H. Concentration and purification of chromate from electroplating wastewater by two-stage electrodialysis processes. J Hazard Mater 2009;161:1075–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.04.106.
Lee H-J, Strathmann H, Moon S-H. Determination of the limiting current density in electrodialysis desalination as an empirical function of linear velocity. Desalination 2006;190:43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2005.08.004.
Cheng G, Wang Q, Sun X, Meng H, Li J. Experimental study on concentration of ammonium lactate solution from kitchen garbage fermentation broth by two-compartment electrodialysis. Separation and Purification Technology 2008;62:205–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2008.01.015.
Zhao Z, Shi S, Cao H, Li Y. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and surface properties characterization of anion exchange membrane fouled by sodium dodecyl sulfate. Journal of Membrane Science 2017;530:220–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2017.02.037.
Zhuo K, Chen Y, Chen J, Bai G, Wang J. Interactions of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium carboxylate ionic liquids with glucose in water: a study of volumetric properties, viscosity, conductivity and NMR. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2011;13:14542–9. https://doi.org/10.1039/C1CP20948E.
Garcia-Vasquez W, Dammak L, Larchet C, Nikonenko V, Grande D. Effects of acid–base cleaning procedure on structure and properties of anion-exchange membranes used in electrodialysis. Journal of Membrane Science 2016;507:12–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2016.02.006.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Mohamed O. Saeed, M. I. Mohamed Ershath, Anwar M. Barnawi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors retain the copyright of their manuscripts, and all Open Access articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that the original work is properly cited.
