The Biomechanical and Perceptual Impact of Breast Support during Riding and Running in Female Equestrians

Lorna Cameron; Natalie Stones; Victoria Lewis; Emma Davies; Jenni L. Douglas; Christy Maddock; Katy Searle; Jenny Burbage

doi:10.64292/ijes.231

Authors

Lorna Cameron Department of Equine Sciences, Hartpury University, Hartpury House, Hartpury, Gloucestershire, GL19 3BE, United Kingdom https://orcid.org/0009-0007-3377-2698
Natalie Stones University Centre Sparsholt, Winchester, Hampshire, SO21 2NF, United Kingdom https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8219-9903
Victoria Lewis Department of Equine Sciences, Hartpury University, Hartpury House, Hartpury, Gloucestershire, GL19 3BE, United Kingdom https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4169-7217
Emma Davies Department of Equine Sciences, Hartpury University, Hartpury House, Hartpury, Gloucestershire, GL19 3BE, United Kingdom https://orcid.org/0009-0002-1680-4882
Jenni L. Douglas Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Hartpury University, Hartpury House, Hartpury, Gloucestershire, GL19 3BE, United Kingdom https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1826-6347
Christy Maddock Department of Equine Sciences, Hartpury University, Hartpury House, Hartpury, Gloucestershire, GL19 3BE, United Kingdom https://orcid.org/0009-0006-9149-6583
Katy Searle Department of Equine Sciences, Hartpury University, Hartpury House, Hartpury, Gloucestershire, GL19 3BE, United Kingdom https://orcid.org/0009-0009-2423-4438
Jenny Burbage School of Psychology, Sport & Health Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Spinnaker Building, PO1 2ER, United Kingdom https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7028-0381

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.64292/ijes.231

Keywords:

Rider performance, bra, breast pain, rider position, asymmetry

Abstract

Popular among women, equestrian sport is the only sex-integrated Olympic sport, relying on interspecies communication between horse and rider. Despite extensive breast research in sport, equestrian research is limited. This study investigated the impact of bras on breast movement, comfort, and pain; rider position and asymmetry; and compared breast movement and pain in riding versus running. Participants (n = 21) rode a Racewood™ Equine Simulator (ES) in walk, trot, and canter and ran on a treadmill (TM) in four breast support conditions: everyday (EB), encapsulation sports bra (ESB), combination sports bra (CSB), and bare-breasted (BB). Markers were tracked by a Qualisys motion capture system, and relative breast displacement (RBD) in TM and ES was calculated, along with rider position during ES. Exercise-induced breast pain (EIBP) and bra comfort were measured on 0–100 visual analogue scales, and a survey on bra performance and aesthetics was completed. TM caused the highest EIBP (mm) (x̃ = 67.25, P < 0.001) and RBD (cm) (x̃ = 5.56, P < 0.001) in BB. A moderate positive association (r_s(19) = 0.428, P < 0.001) was observed between EIBP and RBD, both of which were reduced by ESB (EIBP P < 0.001; RBD P < 0.002) and CSB (EIBP P < 0.001; RBD P < 0.001) in trot and TM. In trot, torso position improved in ESB (Z = −3.841, P < 0.001) and CSB (Z = −3.806, P < 0.001) compared to EB, and riders were most symmetrical in ESB. Bra comfort and preferences were idiosyncratic. Bra type meaningfully influenced EIBP, rider position, and symmetry. Future larger, longitudinal, field-based studies are warranted.

References

Dumbell L. Profiles of British equestrian Olympians: evaluating historical, socio-cultural and sporting influences and how they could inform equestrianism in the future. Doctoral Dissertation. University of the West of England, 2022.

British Equestrian Federation. The power of horses: equestrianism's social value. Kenilworth, UK: British Equestrian; 2025.

World Health Organization. Physical activity 2020. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity (accessed March 15, 2024).

Mills K, Dudley D, Collins NJ. Do the benefits of participation in sport and exercise outweigh the negatives? An academic review. Best Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology 2019;33:172–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.berh.2019.01.015.

Beale L, Maxwell NS, Gibson OR, Twomey R, Taylor B, Church A. Oxygen cost of recreational horse-riding in females. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 2015;12:808–13. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2012-0428.

British Horse Society. Health benefits 2011. http://www.bhs.org.uk/enjoy-riding/health-benefits (accessed March 25, 2024).

Burnett E, White J, Scurr J. The influence of the breast on physical activity participation in females. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 2015;12:588–94. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2013-0236.

Williams J, Tabor G. Rider impacts on equitation. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 2017;190:28–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2017.02.019.

Luke KL, McAdie T, Warren-Smith AK, Rawluk A, Smith BP. Does a working knowledge of learning theory relate to improved horse welfare and rider safety? Anthrozoös 2023;36:703–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2023.2166713.

Clayton HM, Hobbs S-J. The role of biomechanical analysis of horse and rider in equitation science. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 2017;190:123–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2017.02.011.

MacKechnie-Guire R, MacKechnie-Guire E, Fairfax V, Fisher M, Hargreaves S, Pfau T. The effect that induced rider asymmetry has on equine locomotion and the range of motion of the thoracolumbar spine when ridden in rising trot. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 2020;88:102946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2020.102946.

Eckardt F, Witte K. Horse–rider interaction: A new method based on inertial measurement units. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 2017;55:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2017.02.016.

Lewis V, Nicol Z, Dumbell L, Cameron L. A study investigating prevalence of pain in horse riders over thirty-five years old. International Journal of Equine Science 2023;2:9–18. https://doi.org/10.64292/ijes.63.

Masini A, Faouen A, MacGregor H, Beaudoin V, Merkies K. The impact of horseback rider laterality on riding position. Comparative Exercise Physiology 2025;21:435–47. https://doi.org/10.1163/17552559-bja10060.

Kang O-D, Ryu Y-C, Ryew C-C, Oh W-Y, Lee C-E, Kang M-S. Comparative analyses of rider position according to skill levels during walk and trot in Jeju horse. Human Movement Science 2010;29:956–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2010.05.010.

Walker VA, Pettit I, Tranquille CA, Spear J, Dyson SJ, Murray RC. Relationship between pelvic tilt control, horse-rider synchronisation, and rider position in sitting trot. Comparative Exercise Physiology 2020;16:423–32. https://doi.org/10.3920/cep190071.

Bye TL, Martin R. Static postural differences between male and female equestrian riders on a riding simulator. Comparative Exercise Physiology 2022;18:1–8. https://doi.org/10.3920/cep210003.

Kolić P, Heath Hearn J, Holmes PS, Morse CI. Enablers and barriers to physical activity during menstruation: a qualitative study using the theoretical domains framework and COM-B model. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health 2025;18:328–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676x.2025.2589871.

Thompson K, Barrington DJ, Coffey J. Men and women competing on equal terms? A cross-sectional study of young women about the impact of menstrual concerns on equestrian sport participation. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal 2024;32. https://doi.org/10.1123/wspaj.2023-0052.

Peng B, Ng JYY, Ha AS. Barriers and facilitators to physical activity for young adult women: a systematic review and thematic synthesis of qualitative literature. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 2023;20:23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-023-01411-7.

Forino S, Cameron L, Stones N, Freeman M. Potential Impacts of Body Image Perception in Female Equestrians. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 2021;107:103776. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2021.103776.

Coltman CE, Steele JR, McGhee DE. Does breast size affect how women participate in physical activity? Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 2019;22:324–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2018.09.226.

McGhee DE, Steele JR. Biomechanics of breast support for active women. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 2020;48:99–109. https://doi.org/10.1249/jes.0000000000000221.

Cameron LJ, Burbage J, Lewis V, Dumbell L, Billingsley E, Young K, et al. Breast biomechanics, exercise induced breast pain (mastalgia), breast support condition and its impact on riding position in female equestrians. Comparative Exercise Physiology 2022;18:9–20. https://doi.org/10.3920/cep210005.

Burbage J, Cameron LJ. An investigation of bra concerns and barriers to participation in horse riding. Comparative Exercise Physiology 2018;14:1–10. https://doi.org/10.3920/cep170030.

Yick K-L, Keung Y-C, Yu A, Wong K-H, Hui K-T, Yip J. Sports bra pressure: Effect on body skin temperature and wear comfort. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2022;19:15765. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192315765.

Bowles K-A, Steele JR. Effects of strap cushions and strap orientation on comfort and sports bra performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 2013;45:1113–9. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e3182808a21.

Ching-Sui WA, Wang LH, Kuo LC, Su FC. Comparison of breast motion at different levels of support during physical activity. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise 2017;12:1256–64. https://doi.org/10.14198/jhse.2017.124.12.

Bye TL, Chadwick G. Physical fitness habits and perceptions of equestrian riders. Comparative Exercise Physiology 2018;14:183–8. https://doi.org/10.3920/cep180012.

Burbage J, Rawcliffe AJ, Saunders S, Corfield L, Izard R. The incidence of breast health issues and the efficacy of a sports bra fit and issue service in British Army recruits. Ergonomics 2021;64:1052–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2021.1895324.

Gibson TM, Balendra N, Ustinova KI, Langenderfer J. Reductions in kinematics from brassieres with varying breast support. International Journal of Exercise Science 2019;12:402–11. https://doi.org/10.70252/bfxi5607.

White J, Mills C, Ball N, Scurr J. The effect of breast support and breast pain on upper-extremity kinematics during running: implications for females with large breasts. Journal of Sports Sciences 2015;33:2043–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1026378.

Burbage J, Cameron L. An investigation into the prevalence and impact of breast pain, bra issues and breast size on female horse riders. Journal of Sports Sciences 2017;35:1091–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1210818.

Lewis V, Kennerley R. A preliminary study to investigate the prevalence of pain in elite dressage riders during competition in the United Kingdom. Comparative Exercise Physiology 2017;13:259–64. https://doi.org/10.3920/cep170016.

McLean AN, Christensen JW. The application of learning theory in horse training. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 2017;190:18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2017.02.020.

Balog O, Havanecz K, Csányi T, Ökrös C, Tóth L, Berki T. A narrative review of factors influencing rider performance and horse welfare in equestrian activities. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 2026;7:1744918. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2025.1744918.

Pekarchik K. Riding through life: A lifespan study of the attitudes, behaviors, and areas of educational opportunity for female equestrians toward bra use and health outcomes when engaged in equestrian sports. Master's thesis. University of Kentucky, 2017. https://doi.org/10.13023/ETD.2017.404.

Heidbuchel A, Van Rossom S, Molenaers N, Minguet P, Jonkers I. Comparison of the Effect of Dressage Rider Skill Level on Physical Fitness Parameters and Posture on an Equestrian Simulator. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 2023;121:104187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2022.104187.

Kamalha E, Zeng Y, Mwasiagi JI, Kyatuheire S. The comfort dimension; a review of perception in clothing. Journal of Sensory Studies 2013;28:423–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/joss.12070.

McCool WF, Stone-Condry M, Bradford HM. Breast health care: A review. Journal of Nurse-Midwifery 1998;43:406–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0091-2182(98)00065-2.

White J, Scurr J. Evaluation of professional bra fitting criteria for bra selection and fitting in the UK. Ergonomics 2012;55:704–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2011.647096.

Mills C, Loveridge A, Milligan A, Risius D, Scurr J. Can axes conventions of the trunk reference frame influence breast displacement calculation during running? Journal of Biomechanics 2014;47:575–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2013.11.041.

Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology 2006;3:77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.

O'Brien BC, Harris IB, Beckman TJ, Reed DA, Cook DA. Standards for reporting qualitative research: a synthesis of recommendations get access Arrow. Academic Medicine 2014;89:1245–51. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000388.

Schober P, Boer C, Schwarte LA. Correlation coefficients: Appropriate use and interpretation. Anesthesia & Analgesia 2018;126:1763–8. https://doi.org/10.1213/ane.0000000000002864.

Brisbine BR, Steele JR, Phillips EJ, McGhee DE. Can physical characteristics and sports bra use predict exercise-induced breast pain in elite female athletes? Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine 2021;31:e380–4. https://doi.org/10.1097/jsm.0000000000000831.

Viry S, Sleimen-Malkoun R, Temprado J-J, Frances J-P, Berton E, Laurent M, et al. Patterns of horse-rider coordination during endurance race: a dynamical system approach. PLoS ONE 2013;8:e71804. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071804.

Wolframm IA, Bosga J, Meulenbroek RGJ. Coordination dynamics in horse-rider dyads. Human Movement Science 2013;32:157–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2012.11.002.

Witte K, Schobesberger H, Peham C. Motion pattern analysis of gait in horseback riding by means of Principal Component Analysis. Human Movement Science 2009;28:394–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2009.04.002.

Frippiat T, Votion D-M. Warm-up strategies and effects on performance in racing horses and sport horses competing in Olympic disciplines. Animals 2024;14:945. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14060945.

Chen J, Keung YC, Sun Y, Yip J, Yick K-L. Exploration of breast motion under different activities and intensities. Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics 2025;20. https://doi.org/10.1177/15589250251352192.

Cameron L, Smith R, Stones N, Freeman M, Lewis V, Dumbell L, et al. The impact of online educational talks on young equestrians' knowledge of breast health and breast issues. International Journal of Equine Science 2024;3:30–6. https://doi.org/10.64292/ijes.106.

Demarie SD, Galvani C, Donatucci B, Gianfelici A. A pilot study on Italian eventing prospective Olympic horse riders physiological, anthropometrical, functional and asymmetry assessment. Central European Journal of Sport Sciences and Medicine 2022;37:77–88. https://doi.org/10.18276/cej.2022.1-07.

Lewis V, Jones S, Davies E, Dumbell L, Cameron LJ. Functional movement screening scores in United Kingdom female collegiate Eventing riders. Comparative Exercise Physiology 2025;21:217–27. https://doi.org/10.1163/17552559-00001067.

Brown N, Burbage J, Wakefield-Scurr J. Sports bra use, preferences and fit issues among exercising females in the US, the UK and China. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal 2021;25:511–27. https://doi.org/10.1108/jfmm-05-2020-0084.

Dashper K, St John M. Clothes make the rider? Equestrian competition dress and sporting identity. Annals of Leisure Research 2016;19:235–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/11745398.2015.1095103.

Paines E, Milligan G, Tipton M, Roberts A, Rawcliffe AJ, Burbage J. Establishing suitable bra characteristics for tactical athletes: a mixed-method multi-study approach. Sports Medicine 2025;56:1255–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-025-02375-3.

Walker AM, Applegate C, Pfau T, Sparkes EL, Wilson AM, Witte TH. The kinematics and kinetics of riding a racehorse: A quantitative comparison of a training simulator and real horses. Journal of Biomechanics 2016;49:3368–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.08.031.

Dumbell L, Motyl I, Douglas J, Lewis V, Murphy D. A preliminary comparison of rider position between a horse simulator and a live horse. Proceedings of the 11th International Society for Equitation Science Conference, 2015.